24 BÀI ĐỌC THI THỬ IELTS READING (PHẦN 3)

Bên cạnh hướng dẫn kĩ Cách học IELTS READING hiệu quả, IELTS TUTOR giới thiệu 3 chuyên đề IELTS READING qua đó sẽ luyện tập khả năng Reading của mình trước kì thi. Cùng bấm thời gian 60 phút để làm quen hơn với áp lực đề thi thật nhé!

A. From the comfort of our modern lives, we tend to look back at the turn of the twentieth century as a dangerous time for sea travellers and navigators. With limited communication facilities, and shipping technology still in its infancy in the early nineteen hundreds, we consider ocean travel to have been a risky business. But to the people of the time, it was one of the safest forms of transport. At the time of the Titanic’s maiden voyage in 1912, there had only been four lives lost in the previous forty years on passenger ships on the North Atlantic crossing. And the Titanic was confidently proclaimed to be unsinkable. She represented the pinnacle of technological advance at the time. Her builders, crew and passengers had no doubt that she was the finest ship ever built. But still she did sink on April 14, 1912, taking 1,517 of her passengers and crew with her.

B. The RMS Titanic left Southampton for New York on April 10, 1912. On board were some of the richest and most famous people of the time who had paid large sums of money to sail on the first voyage of the most luxurious ship in the world. Imagine her placed on her end: she was larger at 269 metres than many of the tallest buildings of the day. And with nine decks, she was as high as an eleven-storey building. The Titanic carried 329 first-class, 285 second-class and 710 third-class passengers with 899 crew members, under the care of the very experienced Captain Edward J. Smith. She also carried enough food to feed a small town, including 40,000 fresh eggs, 36,000 apples, 111,000 lbs of fresh meat and 2,200 lbs of coffee for the five-day journey.

C. The Titanic was believed to be unsinkable because the hull was divided into sixteen watertight compartments. Even if two of these compartments flooded, the ship could still float. The ship’s owners could not imagine that, in the case of an accident, the Titanic would not be able to float until she was rescued. It was largely as a result of this confidence in the ship and in the safety of ocean travel that the disaster could claim such a great loss of life.

D. In the ten hours prior to the Titanic’s fatal collision with an iceberg at 11:40 pm, six warnings of icebergs in her path were received by the Titanic's wireless operator. Only one of these messages was formally posted on the bridge; the others were in various locations across the ship. If the combined information in these messages of iceberg positions had been plotted, the ice field which lay across the Titanic’s path would have been apparent. Instead, the lack of formal procedures for dealing with information from a relatively new piece of technology, the wireless, meant that the danger was not known until too late. This was not the fault of the Titanic crew. Procedures for dealing with warnings received through the wireless had not been formalised across the shipping industry at the time. The fact that the wireless operators were not even the Titanic crew, but rather contracted workers from a wireless company, made their role in the ship’s operation quite unclear.

E. Captain Smith’s seemingly casual attitude in increasing the speed on this day to a dangerous 22 knots or 41 kilometres per hour can then be partly explained by his ignorance of what was laying ahead. But this only partly accounts for his actions, since the spring weather in Greenland was known to cause huge chunks of ice to break off from the glaciers. Captain Smith knew that these icebergs would float southward and had already acknowledged this danger by taking a more southerly route than at other times of the year. So why was the Titanic travelling at high speed when he knew, if not of the specific risk, at least of the general risk of icebergs in her path? As with the lack of coordination of the wireless messages, it was simply standard operating procedure at the time. Captain Smith was following the practices accepted on the North Atlantic, the practices which had coincided with forty years of safe travel. He believed, wrongly as we now know, that the ship could turn or stop in time if an iceberg was sighted by the lookouts.

F. There were around two and a half hours between the time the Titanic rammed into the iceberg and its final submersion. In this time, 705 people were loaded into the twenty lifeboats. There were 473 empty seats available on lifeboats while over 1,500 people drowned. These figures raise two important issues. Firstly, why there were not enough lifeboats to seat every passenger and crew member on board. And secondly, why the lifeboats were not full.

G. The Titanic had sixteen lifeboats and four collapsible boats which could carry just over half the number of people on board her maiden voyage and only a third of the Titanic’s total capacity. Regulations for the number of lifeboats required were based on outdated British Board of Trade regulations written in 1894 for ships a quarter of the Titanic’s size, and had never been revised. Under these requirements, the Titanic was only obliged to carry enough lifeboats to seat 962 people. At design meetings in 1910, the shipyard’s managing director, Alexander Carlisle, had proposed that forty-eight lifeboats be installed on the Titanic, but the idea had been quickly rejected as too expensive. Discussion then turned to the ship’s decor, and as Carlisle later described the incident, 'We spent two hours discussing carpet for the first-class cabins and fifteen minutes discussing lifeboats’.

H. The belief that the Titanic was unsinkable was so strong that passengers and crew alike clung to the belief even as she was actually sinking. This attitude was not helped by Captain Smith, who had not acquainted his senior officers with the full situation. For the first hour after the collision, the majority of people aboard the Titanic, including senior crew, were not aware that she would sink, that there were insufficient lifeboats, or that the nearest ship responding to the Titanic’s distress calls would arrive two hours after she was on the bottom of the ocean. As a result, the officers in charge of loading the boats received a very half-hearted response to their early calls for women and children to board the lifeboats. People felt that they would be safer, and certainly warmer, aboard the Titanic than perched in a little boat in the North Atlantic Ocean. Not realising the magnitude of the impending disaster themselves, the officers allowed several boats to be lowered only half full.

I. Procedures again were at fault, as an additional reason for the officers’ reluctance to lower the lifeboats at full capacity was that they feared the lifeboats would buckle under the weight of 65 people. They had not been informed that the lifeboats had been fully tested prior to departure. Such procedures as assigning passengers and crew to lifeboats and lifeboat loading drills were simply not part of the standard operation of ships, nor were they included in crew training at this time.

J. As the Titanic sank, another ship, believed to have been the Californian, was seen motionless less than twenty miles away. The ship failed to respond to the Titanic’s eight distress rockets. Although the officers of the Californian tried to signal the Titanic with their flashing Morse lamp, they did not wake up their radio operator to listen for a distress call. At this time, communication at sea through wireless was new and the benefits not well appreciated, so the wireless on ships was often not operated around the clock. In the case of the Californian, the wireless operator slept unaware while 1,500 Titanic passengers and crew drowned only a few miles away.

K. After the Titanic sank, investigations were held in both Washington and London. In the end, both inquiries decided that no one could be blamed for the sinking. However, they did address the fundamental safety issues which had contributed to the enormous loss of life. As a result, international agreements were drawn up to improve safety procedures at sea. The new regulations covered 24-hour wireless operation, crew training, proper lifeboat drills, lifeboat capacity for all on board and the creation of an international ice patrol. (1,400 words)

Questions 1-5 (Overview Questions)
Choose the heading which best sums up the primary cause of the problem described in paragraphs D, E, G, H and I of the text. Write the appropriate numbers (i – x) in your booklet.

N.B. There are more heading than paragraphs, so you will not use all of them.

1. Paragraph D
2. Paragraph E
3. Paragraph G
4. Paragraph H
5. Paragraph I

Questions 6 - 10 (Gap-Filling Questions)

Complete the sentences below using words taken from the reading passage. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in your booklet.

6. .....................did not arouse any response from the Californian.

7. Lifeboats not used......................diminished the opportunity of saving lives.

8. One positive outcome was that the enquiries into the Titanic disaster sought to improve safety procedures by initiating.............

9. The Titanic's safety feature, which convinced most people that she wouldn't sink, was her..................
10. Passenger ships across the North Atlantic Ocean had had an excellent safety record in the...............

Questions 11-17 (Viewpoint Questions)
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in the reading passage? In questions 11-17 in your booklet, write:
YES if the statement agrees with the writer's view;

NO if the statement contradicts the writer's view;

NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this.

11. The enormous loss of life on the Titanic was primarily caused by inadequate equipment, training and procedures.

Answer:................................................
12. Nobody had thought of installing enough lifeboats to accommodate all the passengers and crew in the event of an emergency.

Answer:................................................
13. Captain Smith didn't inform his officers of the true situation because he didn't want to cause a panic.

Answer:................................................
14. The lifeboats would have buckled if they had been fully loaded.
Answer:................................................
15. After the Titanic sank, the lifeboats which were not full should have returned to rescue as many people from the water as they could.

Answer:................................................

16. The Captain of the Californian would have brought his ship to the rescue if he had realised that the Titanic was sinking.
Answer:................................................
17. The sinking of the Titanic prompted an overhaul of standard operating procedures which made ocean travel much safer.

Answer:................................................

Question 18-26 (Summary Questions)
Complete the summary below. Choose your answers from words given in the box and write them in your booklet.

N.B. There are more words than spaces, so you will not use them all. You may use any of the words more than once.

List of Words

passengers

dangers

fast

safety

confident

excitement

sink

lifeboats

enormous

record

advanced

inadequate

afloat

size

worried

water

drown

float

handbook

orders

happy

ocean

procedures

The North Atlantic Ocean crossing on the Titanic was expected to set a new standard for (18)........... travel in terms of comfort and (19)............. The shipping industry had an excellent safety (20)............ on the North Atlantic Crossing over the previous forty years and the Titanic was the finest and safest liner ever built. The Titanic combined the greatest technology of the day with sheer (21).............., luxury and new safety features. The Titanic's owners were (22)........... that even if the Titanic were letting in (23)............, she would (24)............ indefinitely until help arrived. In hindsight, we know that the Titanic was not unsinkable, and that technology alone could not save lives when facilities were (25).......... and humans did not follow safe (26)........... whether because of arrogance or ignorance.

Questions 27-36 (Table-Completion Questions)

Complete the table below using the information from the reading passage. Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in the table in your booklet.

Questions 37-40 (Matching Questions)
The reading passage describes a number of cause-and-effect relationships. Match each cause in List A with its effect (A-H) in List B. Write your answers (A-H) after questions 37-40 in your booklet.

N.B. There are more effects in List B than you will need, so you will not use all of them. You may use any effect more than once if you wish.

List A — Causes
37. Outdated regulations designed for much smaller ships

Answer: .................................

38. Captain Smith's failure to communicate sufficient information to officers
Answer:..................................

39. No requirements for 24-hours-a-day wireless operation

Answer:................................

40. Lack of procedures for dealing with wireless messages

Answer:................................

List B — Effects
A. Lack of lifeboat training and drills

B. More than two of the watertight compartments filled with water

C. Locations of icebergs received in ice warnings were not plotted

D. Half full lifeboats did not return to rescue people

E. Nearby ship did not come to Titanic's rescue

F. Not enough lifeboats

G. Passengers panicked

H. Lifeboats were not fully loaded

You are advised to spend about 20 minutes on this passage.

American banks continue to make vast profits. Will the good times end when the Fed raises interest rates?

Mr. Greenspan's scepticism, you might not be surprised to hear, was warranted. American banks cruised through the downturn following the stockmarket crash of 2000 with barely a dent in the bumper, and since then their profits have accelerated. Last year Citigroup, the largest financial firm in the world, made more money than any other company has ever made before. In the first quarter of this year, it made another $5.3 billion, putting it on course to break last year's record. Bank after bank has announced a sharp increase in profits in the first quarter. And yet bank shares have foundered: the banking bit of the S&P 500 is some 7% off its high. Investors, it seems, doubt whether the good times can continue. And the reason for these fears is a slew of robust economic statistics suggesting that the Federal Government is likely to raise interest rates sooner rather than later. This, they think, will hurt banks.

Though fully in agreement with these views, his dismal track record at the very least requires Buttonwood to put the case for the defence. Far from falling, bank profits could actually rise when the Federal Government puts up rates. All things equal, says David Fanger of Moody's, a rating agency, banks make more money when interest rates are high than when they are low, because they benefit more from paying low or no interest on checking (current) accounts and so forth. The attraction of such cheap sources of funding is the main reason why banks have built up their branch networks in recent years, helping them to suck in deposits, which have been growing at almost 10% a year. The cheap funding from deposits, says Mr. Fanger, accounts for 25%-40% of profits, depending on the bank. It would mean still more profits were rates to rise.

But while banks' funding will benefit from the rise in short-term rates, they will lose out (in one way, at least) if higher long-term rates do not rise too. Banks essentially take two risks. The first, dubbed 'maturity transformation' risk, involves borrowing short and lending long. The bigger the difference between short- and long-term rates, the more money banks make. Thanks to the largesse of the Fed and its 1% short-term rates, the yield curve — the difference between short and long rates — has been at or near a record high over the past couple of years. The difference between two- and ten-year Treasuries — a good way of measuring the slope of the curve — has been two and a half times its average of the past 20 years, says David Hendler of Credit-Sights, an independent research firm. As a result, he says, 'you could have strapped any monkey to a trading chair and made money.'

Banks have played the yield curve for all they are worth, in the sure knowledge that the Fed will give ample warning before it alters short-term rates. Although commercial lending has dropped, banks' holdings of government securities have grown, as have their investments in mortgage-backed securities, which have gone up by almost $100 billion, or a third, since last September. The market for interest-rate swaps is another favoured playground. Here, banks simply pay a low, short-term floating rate and receive a high, fixed one. Half the top 20 American banks get at least 10% of their profits from this spread, according to Mr. Hendler; for J. P. Morgan Chase, it was an astonishing 33% last year.

The fear, of course, is that banks could lose heavily if long-term rates rise sharply, because the securities that they have bought already would fall in value (although, of course, they would be able to earn a decent spread on new ones). And many other investors have also taken full advantage of the steep yield curve, which might mean a decidedly nasty fall as they head for the exits at the same time.

Most economists put 'fair value' of ten-year Treasuries at 5.5% or so. This would mean big losses on all those bonds and swaps positions that banks had taken out when rates were a lot lower and prices higher. It would, however, be mainly a valuation loss, and banks might avoid the worst of it by transferring positions to that part of their balance sheet that they do not have to mark to the market price. They would, however, be left with low-yielding assets at a time when the cost of their liabilities in the capital markets was rising. Of course, banks are not stupid: they know that the Fed will raise rates at some point. But the pressure on them to increase profits is so great that most of them have stayed put for as long as possible. All of this means, at the very least, lower profits on existing positions. And if short-term rates rise sharply, as they did in 1994, banks will be in trouble.

But the second risk that banks take — credit risk — is just as big a concern in a rising interest-rate environment. Credit costs have fallen sharply in recent years for consumers and companies alike, thanks to a buoyant economy and low rates. Mr. Fanger argues that those costs are likely to remain low because the Fed will be raising rates at a time when the economy is humming along nicely. But given how high consumer and corporate debts are, and how low the price now charged to lend to riskier borrowers is, such a view seems overly sanguine. You may feel, however, that such warnings can be safely ignored. (921 words)

Questions 1-6

Choose the most suitable heading for each paragraph from the list of headings (A-K) below. Write the appropriate letters (A-K) in the spaces provided after questions 1-6.

N.B. There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use all of them.

List of Headings

A. Short-term and long-term interest rates

B. Taking advantage of a record high curve

C. The warning issued by Federal Government

D. Doubt about the sustainable bank profits

E. Fear about sudden policy change

F. Leave the scepticism alone

G. Bank profit losses due to the rise of interest rates

H. The way banks gain profits

I. Theoretical estimate of a long-term gain

J. Rising bank profits with rising interest rates

K. Sharply fallen credit costs

1. Paragraph 1

2. Paragraph 2
3. Paragraph 3

4. Paragraph 4
Example: Paragraph 5 E
5. Paragraph 6
6. Paragraph 7

Questions 7-10

Answer the questions using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text for each answer. Write your answer in the blank below the question.

7. What are the investors afraid of most in recent months?

...............................................................................................

8. How have bankers made profits?

...............................................................................................

9. What are banks trying to make full use of?

...............................................................................................

10. What banking product is more risky when the interest rates are rising?

...............................................................................................

You are advised to spend about 20 minutes on this passage.

Section 1

Hypnosis is an intriguing and fascinating process. A trance-like mental state is induced in one person by another, who appears to have the power to command that person to obey instructions without question. Hypnotic experiences were described by the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, while references to deep sleep and anaesthesia have been found in the Bible and in the Jewish Talmud. In the mid-1700s, Franz Mesmer, an Austrian physician, developed his theory of ‘animal magnestism’, which was the belief that the cause of disease was the ‘improper distribution of invisible magnetic fluids’. Mesmer used water tubs and magnetic wands to direct these supposed fluids to his patients. In 1784, a French commission studied Mesmer’s claims, and concluded that these cues were only imagined by patients. However, people continued to believe in this process of ‘mesmerism’ and it was soon realised that successful results could be achieved, but without the need for magnets and water.

Section 2

The term hypnotism was first used by James Braid, a British physician who studied suggestion and hypnosis in the mid-1800s. He demonstrated that hypnosis differed from sleep, that it was a physiological response and not a result of secret powers. During the same period, James Esdaile, a Scottish doctor working in India, used hypnotism instead of anaesthetic in over 200 major surgical operations, including leg amputations. Later that century a French neurologist, Jean Charcot, successfully experimented with hypnosis in his clinic for nervous disorders.

Section 3

Since then, scientists have shown that the state of hypnosis is a natural human behaviour, which can affect psychological, social and/or physical experiences. The effects of hypnotism depend on the ability, willingness and motivation of the person being hypnotised. Although hypnosis has been compared to dreaming and sleepwalking, it is not actually related to sleep. It involves a more active and intensive mental concentration of the person being hypnotised. Hypnotised people can talk, write, and walk about and they are usually fully aware of what is being said and done.

Section 4

There are various techniques used to induce hypnosis. The best known is a series of simple suggestions repeated continuously in the same tone of voice. The subject is instructed to focus their attention on an object or fixed point, while being told to relax, breathe deeply, and allow the eyelids to grow heavy and close. As the person responds, their state of attention changes, and this altered state often leads to other changes. For example, the person may experience different levels of awareness, consciousness, imagination, memory and reasoning or becoming more responsive to suggestions. Additional phenomena may be produced or eliminated such as blushing, sweating, paralysis, muscle tension or anaesthesia. Although these changes can occur with hypnosis, none of these experiences is unique to it. People who are very responsive to hypnosis are also more responsive to suggestions when they are hypnotised. This responsiveness increases during hypnotism. This explains why hypnosis takes only a few seconds for some, whilst other people cannot be easily hypnotised.

Section 5

It is a common misunderstanding that hypnotists are able to force people to perform criminal or any other acts against their will. In fact, subjects can resist suggestions, and they retain their ability to distinguish right from wrong. This misunderstanding is often the result of public performances where subjects perform ridiculous or highly embarrassing actions at the command of the hypnotist. These people are usually instructed not to recall their behaviour after re-emerging from the hypnotic state, so it appears that they were powerless while hypnotised. The point to remember, however, is that these individuals chose to participate, and the success of hypnotism depends on the willingness of a person to be hypnotised.

Section 6

Interestingly, there are different levels of hypnosis achievable. Thus deep hypnosis can be induced to allow anaesthesia or surgery, childbirth or dentistry. This contrasts to a lighter state of hypnosis, which deeply relaxes the patient who will then follow simple directions. This latter state may be used to treat mental health problems, as it allows patients to feel calm while simultaneously thinking about distressing feelings or painful memories. Thus patients can learn new responses to situations or come up with solutions to problems. This can help recovery from psychological conditions such as anxiety, depression or phobias. Sometime after traumatic incidents, memory of the incidents may be blocked. For example, some soldiers develop amnesia (loss of memory) as a result of their experiences during wartime. Through hypnosis these repressed memories can be retrieved and treated. A variation of this treatment involves age regression, when the hypnotist takes the patient back to a specific age. In this way patients may remember events and feelings from that time, which may be affecting their current well-being.

Section 7

Physicians also have made use of the ability of a hypnotised person to remain in a given position for long periods of time. In one case, doctors had to graft skin onto a patient’s badly damaged foot. First, skin from the person’s abdomen was grafted onto his arm; then the graft was transferred to his foot. With hypnosis, the patient held his arm tightly in position over his abdomen for three weeks, then over his foot for four weeks. Even though these positions were unusual, the patient at no time felt uncomfortable!

Section 8

Hypnosis occasionally has been used with witnesses and victims of crime to enable people to remember important clues, such as a criminal’s physical appearance or other significant details that might help to solve a crime. However, as people can both lie and make mistakes while hypnotised, the use of hypnotism in legal situations can cause serious problems. Also hypnosis cannot make a person divulge secret information if they don’t want to. This was confirmed by the Council on Scientific Affairs of American Medical Association, which, in 1985 reported that memories refreshed through hypnosis may include inaccurate information, false memories, and confabulation (fact and fantasy combined) (979 words)

Questions 11-17

The passage has eight sections. Choose the most suitable heading for each section from the list of headings (A-L) below. The first one has been done for you as an example. Write your answers in the spaces provided.

N.B. There are more headings than sections, so you will not use all of them.

Example Answer

Section 1 J

11. Section 2

12. Section 3

13. Section 4

14. Section 5

15. Section 6

16. Section 7

17. Section 8

List of Headings

A. Use of hypnotism in criminal cases

B. The body posture and hypnosis

C. Early medical experiments with hypnotism

D. Early association of hypnotists with psychology

E. Dangers of hypnotism

F. How to hypnotise

G. Hypnosis and free will

H. Difference between mesmerism and hypnotism

I. Therapeutic uses of hypnosis

J. Origins of hypnosis

K. The normality of hypnotised subjects' behaviour

L. Circumspection of hypnotism in legal process

Questions 18-22

Complete the notes of the history of hypnosis using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage.

References to hypnotism can be found both in the Talmud and the (18).............. Even when Mesmer’s (19).............were not used, successful results occurred without them. Braid identified hypnosis as a natural (20)................response, rather than magical or mystical. Early psychological studies showed the difference between sleep and hypnosis. Successful hypnosis requires the subject’s active (21)....................... Consequently subjects can speak or move around and are (22)............of their surroundings.

Questions 23-26

Decide which of the alternatives is the correct answer and circle the appropriate letter in your booklet.

23. In order to induce hypnosis, the hypnotist will ....................

A. encourage the person to relax using a repetitively even tone of voice.

B. say a specific set of words in a special tone of voice.

C. say any words but in a particular tone of voice.

D. encourage the person to relax while focusing on a slowly moving object.

24. Hypnotised subjects can be instructed to ..........................

A. do something they have previously said against their wishes.

B. demonstrate physical strength they would normally not have.

C. reveal confidential information against their will.

D. do something that they would not normally be opposed to doing.

25. Past events are recalled under hypnosis .................

A. to entertain the hypnotist.

B. to allow the subject to reassess them without distress.

C. to help the subject improve their memories.

D. to make the subject feel young

26. After surgery, hypnosis may be used ......................

A. to make drugs unnecessary.

B. to keep the patient mobile.

C. to make the patient forget to move.

D. to minimise a patient's discomfort while immobile.

You are advised to spend about 20 minutes on this passage.

Section I

The most difficult aspect of money to understand is its function as a unit of account. In linear measurement we find the definition of a yard, or a metre, easy to accept. In former times, these lengths were defined in terms of fine lines etched onto brass rods maintained in standards laboratories at constant temperatures. Money is much more difficult to define, however, because the value of anything is ultimately in the mind of the observer, and such values will change with time and circumstance.
Sir Isaac Newton, as Master of the Royal Mint, defined the pound sterling in 1717 as 113 grains of pure gold. This took Britain off silver and onto gold as defining the unit of account. The pound was 113 grains of pure gold, the shilling was 1/20 of that, and the penny 1/240 of it.
By the end of the nineteenth century, the gold standard had spread around most of the trading world, with the result that there was a single world money. It was called by different names in different countries, but all these supposedly different currencies were rigidly interconnected through their particular definition in terms of a quantity of gold.

Section II
In economic life, the prices of different commodities and services are always changing with respect to each other. If the potato crop, for example, is ruined by frost or flood, the price of potatoes will go up. The consequences of that particular price increase will be complex and unpredictable. Because of the high price of potatoes, prices of other things will decline, as demand for them declines. Similarly, the argument that the Middle East crisis following the Iraqi annexation of Kuwait would, because of increased oil prices, have led to sustained general inflation is, although widely accepted, entirely without foundation. With sound money (money whose purchasing power does not decline over time), a sudden price shock in any one commodity will not lead to a general price increase, but to changes in relative prices throughout the economy. As oil increases, other goods or services will drop in price, and oil substitutes will rise in price, as the consequences of the oil price increase work their unpredictable and complex way through the economy.
The use of gold as a unit of account during the days of the gold standard meant that the price of all other commodities and services would swing up and down with the reference to the price of gold, which was fixed. If gold supplies diminished, as they did when 1850s' gold rushes in California and Australia petered out, the deflation (a general price level decrease) would set in. When new gold rushes followed in South Africa and again in Australia, in the 1880s and 1980s, the general price level increased, gently around the world.

Section III
The end of the gold standard began with the introduction of the Bretton-Woods Agreement in 1946. This fixed the value of all world currencies relative to the US dollar, which in turn was fixed to a specific value of gold (US$0.35/oz). However, in 1971, the US government finally refused to exchange US dollars for gold, and other countries soon followed. Governments printed as much paper money or coinage as they wanted, and the more that was printed, the less each unit of currency was worth.
The key problem with these government 'fiat' currencies is that their value is not defined; such value is subject to how much money a government cares to print. Their future value is unpredictable, depending as it does on political chance. In our economic calculations concerning the past, we automatically convert incomes and expenditures to dollars of a particular year, using CPI deflators which are stored in our computers. When we perform economic calculations into the future, we guess at inflation rates and include these guesses in our figures. Our guesses are entirely based on past experience. In Australia most current calculations assume a 3 to 4 per cent inflation rate.

Section IV
The great advantage of the nineteenth-century gold standard was not just that it defined the unit of account, but that it operated throughout almost the entire world. A price in England was the same as price in Australia and in North America. Anthony Trollope tells us in his diaries about his Australia travels in 1873 that a pound of meat, selling in Australia for two pence, would have cost ten pence or even a shilling in the UK. It was this price difference which drove investment and effort into the development of shipboard refrigeration, and opening up of major new markets for Australian meat, at great benefit to the British public.
Today we can determine price differences between countries by considering the exchange rate of the day. In twelve months' time, even a month's time, however, a totally different situation may prevail, and investments of time and money made on the basis of an opportunity at an exchange rate of the day become completely wasted because of subsequent exchange rate movements.
The great advantage of having a single table world money is that such money has very high information content. It tells people where to invest their time, energy and capital, all around the world, with much greater accuracy and predictability than would otherwise be possible. (879 words)

Glossary:

CPI deflator: a mathematical calculation based on the Consumer Price Index (CPI) that allows us to compare past prices to current prices.

Questions 27-30
The reading passage has four sections. Choose the most suitable heading for each section from the list of headings (i-vi) below. Write the answers in the spaces provided in your booklet.
N.B. There are more headings than sections, so you will not use all of them.

List of Headings

i. The price of gold

ii. The notion of money and its expression

iii. The rise of problematic modern currencies

iv. Stable money compared to modern 'fiat' currencies

v. The effects of inflation

vi. The interrelationship of prices

27. Section I

28. Section II

29. Section III

30. Section IV

Questions 31-35
Using the information from the text, match each of the following causes with an effect. Write the appropriate letter under the question statement.

Causes
31. The price of potatoes goes up.

Answer:............................................

32. Oil prices rise.

Answer:............................................

33. The amount of gold available went up.

Answer:............................................

34. The amount of gold available went down.

Answer:............................................
35. Meat in Australia was cheaper than elsewhere.

Answer:............................................

Effects

A. Oil substitutes become more expensive.

B. Oil substitutes drop in price.

C. People developed techniques of transporting it to other places.

D. More people went to live in Australia.

E. The prices of other things go down, because fewer people could afford to buy them.

F. People used gold instead of silver as money.

G. All prices went up slightly everywhere.

H. There is no observed effect.

I. All prices went down everywhere.

Questions 36-40
In the reading passage, the writer compares money based on a gold standard and 'fiat' currencies. Using the information in the passage, match the writer's opinions in List 1 with a phrase A, B, or C in List 2 to show which kind of money is meant. Write your answers in the spaces provided.

List 1
36. The writer states that it has a clearly defined value.

Answer:..................................................

37. The writer states that its value by definition varies over time.

Answer:..................................................

38. The writer describes its future value as predictable.

Answer:..................................................

39. The writer knows one can calculate its past value.
Answer:..................................................
40. The writer believes it makes international investment easier.
Answer:..................................................

List 2

A. Money based on a gold standard.

B. Government fiat monopoly currencies.

C. Both money based on a gold standard and 'fiat' currencies.

You are advised to spend about 20 minutes on this passage.

A non-human example of the cultural transmission of social norms

Is aggressive behaviour innate or learned? In baboons, it seems, it is learned. A surprising natural experiment, reported in Public Library Of Science Biology, an online journal, suggests that the level of violence in baboon society is culturally determined.

The story begins in 1983, in the Masai Mara Reserve in Kenya. Robert Sapolslcy, a primatologist at Stanford University, was five years into a study of the reserve's olive baboon population when one of the troops he had been observing suffered an outbreak of tuberculosis which killed half of its males. Since the source of the infection was a garbage dump being used as a food supply, and control of this dump was contested with another troop, the males who became infected and died were the more aggressive individuals in the troop — i.e. those best fitted to the task of fighting for food. The result was that the level of aggressive behaviour within the troop dropped off markedly.

Dr. Sapolsky was understandably upset by what had happened and decided to start again with another troop — one with a more normal sex ratio and social structure. So he turned his attention to a troop 50km away until 1993, when he wanted to show his new colleague (and wife) Lisa Share his original research site. To his surprise, ten years after the natural cull of aggressive individuals had started, the behaviour of the troop's males was still pacific. The reason for that surprise was that every male who had been in the troop in 1983 — not just the ones who had died of tuberculosis — had gone. All of the troop's males were incomers. (Male olive baboons seek their fortunes in troops other than the ones they have been born into.)

Dr. Sapolsky and Dr. Share decided to investigate further. They began to observe Forest Troop (as Dr. Sapolsky dubbed his original subjects) in detail. They compared the troop's behaviour both to what it had been before the outbreak, and to that of the other troops they had been studying.

Some things had not changed. Top-rank males in all groups stayed boss for roughly the same length of time — a year. So-called approach-avoidance interactions between males, in which a high-ranking male displaces a lower-ranking one without any overt violence, happened about as often in one group as in another. But the detailed pattern of these interactions was different. In the new Forest Troop, males tend to 'pick on individuals their own size', attempting to displace those of adjacent rank, whereas in more traditional groups, top monkeys tend to bully those at least two ranks below them — animals that have no chance of fighting back. The new Forest males are also less likely to launch attacks on females.

Subordinate males in the new Forest Troop are under less physiological stress, too. When Dr. Sapolsky had sampled blood in the pre-outbreak Forest Troop, he had found high levels of hormones called glucocorticoids, which are released in response to stress. Not so in the new Forest Troop. Glucocorticoid levels in its members are low. In fact, even the act of sampling blood had differentiated high — from low-ranking males in the old days. Dominant males suffered no altered behaviour, whereas sub-ordinates scratched themselves, shook their heads incessantly and ground their teeth. No longer.

Cultural transmission of behaviour has been seen in many animals besides humans. But until now, it has concerned what foodstuffs are good to eat, how to make and use tools, and how to communicate (many bird songs, for example, have learned regional dialects). Cultural transmission of, for want of a better word, manners, has never before been observed outside HOMO SAPIENS.

How it came about is still a bit of a mystery, though when Dr. Sapolsky and Dr. Share weighed the evidence, they felt it supported the idea that males new to the troop somehow picked up on how they were expected to behave by watching what I was going on, and then found life easier if they did likewise. It also seemed to have a lot more to do with how the Forest females treated newcomers, than their treatment by existing Forest males. The females, it seems, like the new arrangement and are keen to preserve it.

However, such pacific behaviour is unusual in baboon troops, which suggests it is an unstable arrangement. In particular, it might be overthrown if several males with different ideas arrived at the same time. Dr. Sapolsky and Dr. Share are therefore watching the troop intently, to see what, if anything, causes its males to revert to the tried and tested macho methods of normal baboon life. (779 words)

Questions 1-7 
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in the reading passage? In questions 11-17 in your booklet, write:
YES if the statement agrees with the writer's view;

NO if the statement contradicts the writer's view;

NOT GIVEN if the statement does not reflect the writer's view.

1. Baboons are born to be violent by nature.

Answer:.............................................
2. More aggressive baboons die because of fighting for food.

Answer:.............................................
3. Incomers of a baboon troop are generally peaceful in their behaviour.

Answer:.............................................
4. Comparison is the best possible way to study baboon troops.

Answer:.............................................
5. There is a uniform peaceful transformation of power within a baboon community.

Answer:.............................................

6. Cultural transmission of a baboon family follows a pre-determined pattern.

Answer:.............................................
7. Any social norm of a baboon community is very weak and fragile.

Answer:.............................................

Questions 8-12

Complete the following summary by using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage. Write your answers in the spaces provided.

The cultural transmission of a baboon community is revealed by a (8)............, which shows that the (19)........... will decrease when the aggressive baboons die. The scientists compared two groups of baboon troops and found that high-ranking and low-ranking baboons generally interact in the absence of (10).............Even though it is still mysterious, the scientists believe that the newcomers' behaviour is (11).......... by watching others. However, this peaceful life is only (12)......... if several male baboons want to overthrow it.

You are advised to spend about 20 minutes on this passage.

With the globalisation of information technology (IT) and worldwide access to the Internet, people from all areas of learning are finding themselves using some form of information technology in the workplace. The corporate world has seen a boom in the use of IT tools, but conversely not enough people with IT skills can enter the workplace and be productive with minimal on-the-job training.

A recent issue of the New York Times reports that many companies are looking for smart students who may have a budding interest in IT. Some companies, trying to encourage students to attend interviews, provide good salary package and challenging work environments. For example, one American IT consulting company offers high salaries, annual bonuses, and immediate stock options to potential recruits. It also brings in 25 to 40 prospective applicants at a time for a two-day visit to the company. This time includes interviews, team exercises and social events. The idea behind the team exercises is that the applicants get to see that they will be working with other smart people doing really interesting things, rather than sitting alone writing code.

In the past 10 years, employers have seen marked benefits from collaborative projects in product development. Apart from the work environment, there is also a similar body of research indicating that small team-based instruction can lead to different kinds of desirable educational results. In order to prepare IT graduates to meet these workplace requirements, colleges and universities are also beginning to include team-based educational models.

One of the leaders in promoting team-based education is the American Intercontinental University (AIU), which has campuses worldwide. AIU offers programmes in IT with a major portion of the curriculum based on team projects. AIU has a large body of international students and students from different educational backgrounds. This team-based learning gives students a sense of social and technical support within a group, and allows students first-hand experience of both potential successes and of inherent problems encouraged when working with others.

Team-oriented instruction has not been the common mode of delivery in traditional college settings. However, since most college graduates who choose to go into an IT work environment will encounter some form of teamwork at work, it is to their advantage that they are educated using collaborative learning and that they are taught the tools needed to work with different people in achieving common goals or objectives.

In team-based learning, students spend a large part of their in-class time working in permanent and heterogeneous teams. Most teams are made up of individuals with different socio-cultural backgrounds and varying skill levels. Team activities concentrate on using rather than just learning concepts, whilst students' grades are a combination of overall team performance and peer evaluation of individual team members.

In a team-based environment, the teacher takes on the role of a facilitator and manager of learning, instead of just providing information to passive students. The facilitator / teacher also guides the team in identifying their goals and establishing standards of team performance. Team exercises then help the students to improve their problem-solving skills by applying theory to simulated real-world situations. Working as a team allows students to adopt new rules and empowers them to control their own learning. Students in teams are taught to use each other as resources and accept the responsibility of managing tasks.

Team members must also study assigned material individually to ensure their preparation for classes. There are individual assessment tests to measure if students have not only read the assigned material, but also understand the concepts of the module, and can apply them to given problems. Additional team assessment tests present a problem for discussion and require consensus, helping students learn critical communication skills. This also enables them to deal with conflicts between members before they escalate to crisis. Team presentations (written or verbal) allow the team to focus and build cohesion, with team members sharing the responsibility for presenting and persuading the audience to accept their viewpoint. Feedback on how the team is functioning with task management, team dynamics and overall work is given by the facilitator. Team exercises that are application-oriented help students experience the practical application of concepts and learn from other students' perspectives.

Team-based classrooms are especially beneficial in colleges with international students. Since this type of learning encourages people to listen and communicate with others, share problems, resolve personal conflicts, and manage their time and resources, it is a great environment for students who are in a new social situation. Since social interaction plays an important role during teamwork, team-based learning has an added advantage for students who are not comfortable in traditional classroom settings. It allows students from different cultures to understand their differences and use them productively. This type of learning environment also allows students to express themselves freely in a team context, rather than feeling singled out as when answering questions in a traditional classroom.

This learning model was designed to better prepare students for today's global work-place. Students are encouraged to explore ideas together, to build communication skills and achieve superior results. It is likely that employers will increasingly seek out students with these skills as we move into the future. (863 words)

Questions 13-17
Do the following statements reflect the views of the writer in the reading passage? Write your answers in the spaces provided. Choose:
YES if the statement agrees with the writer's view

NO if the statement contradicts the writer's view

NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

13. The American Intercontinental University includes team-based learning in all its courses on all its campuses.

Answer:................................
14. The composition of teams is changed regularly.
Answer:...............................
15. Theoretical problems are the most important team activity.
Answer:................................
16. The team members participate in assessment of other team members.
Answer:................................
17. International students prefer traditional classroom learning to team-based learning.

Answer:................................

Questions 18-20
Choose one phrase from the list of phrases (A-H) on the next page to complete each of the following sentences. There are more phrases than sentences, so you will not use all of them.

18. Students' work is assessed.

19. The team makes a joint presentation.

20. The need to achieve consensus assists.

List of Phrases

A. to complete with other teams as judged by the facilities

B. by individual tests and exams

C. to see who has the strongest point of view in the group

D. individually, by their peers and as a team

E. in the development of the communication skills

F. to practice working in a group while putting theory into practice

G. to assist intercontinental and non-traditional students

H. in getting to know new friends and colleagues

Questions 21-28

Complete the following summary below. Choose your answers from the box below the summary. There are more words than you will need to fill the gaps. Write your answers in the blanks in your booklet.

Although IT is one of the leading career (21)............... made by graduates today, the industry's demand for qualified applicants (22)............ the supply of skilled IT personnel. Despite the (23)........... widespread use of computer technology in all areas of life, (24)........... face difficulties recruiting people whose education has equipped them to commence working productively without further training. Several business organisations now offer income and other (25)............... inducements to potential employees. They also include group (26)................ in their selection procedures, often inviting up to forty (27)..............to their company for the two-day visit. In this way, the company can demonstrate the reality of the working (28)............. which is more likely to invite challenging co-operative projects than individualised tasks.

List of Words
exceeds

previous

environment

employees

admiration

employers

candidates
regularity

advantages

choices

employment

current

extracts

financial

activities

You are advised to spend about 20 minutes on this passage.

In 1994 the comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided with the planet Jupiter, causing great excitement in the world of astronomy. The article which follows was written after the first impact.

Shoemaker-Levy 9 has plunged into Jupiter, and the Hubble Space Telescope has moved away to look at other objects in space. Amateur astronomers, however, are still watching Jupiter to see what bruises were left on the mighty planet by the comet crash in 1994. There was tremendous excitement in astronomical circles during the collision of comet and planet. It is now time to see what has been learned from this impact.

One question which may never be answered: Was Shoemaker-Levy 9 really a comet, or was it an asteroid instead? Comets tend to be a mixture of ice, rock and dust, along with other substances, like carbon monoxide, that evaporate quickly to form a halo and a tail. Scientists studying the chemical composition of the spots on Jupiter where Shoemaker-Levy 9 (S-L-9) hit thought they might see evidence of water and oxygen, two of the expected products when an icy comet vaporises. But except for one unconfirmed report, researchers have found only ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and sulphur gas.

Asteroids are rockier than comets. Yet it is possible for an asteroid to have a halo or a tail, made mostly of dust. Says Hal Weaver of Space Telescope Institute: ‘The only real evidence that S-L-9 was a comet is that it broke apart, and we’ve never seen that in an asteroid. But maybe this was a fragile asteroid’.

Amateur astronomer David Levy, who with Eugene and Carolyn Shoemaker discovered S-L-9, points out that comets were originally distinguished by their appearance. They are objects that look like fuzzy stars with tails, and in any previous century, astronomers would have called this discovery a comet. On that basis, argues Levy, ‘S-L-9 is a comet, period’.

The apparent absence of water at the impact sites provides a clue about how far the S-L-9 fragments penetrated Jupiter’s atmosphere before exploding. Theorists think that a layer of water vapour lies some 95km below the visible cloud tops; above the vapour layer, about 50km down, are clouds believed to consist of a sulphur compound. Since no water seems to have been stirred up, the explosion probably took place in the presumed sulphide layer.

If the researchers confirm that the sulphur rose up from Jupiter, it will be 'a major discovery', says University of Arizona astronomer Roger Yelle. 'We've always believed that much of the colour in Jupiter's clouds comes from sulphur compounds, but we've never detected them.'

No one knows why the points of impact are so dark, but it is clear that they are very high up in Jupiter's atmosphere, since the planet stripes can be seen through them. Astronomers believe the collision will provide an opportunity to study the winds above Jupiter's cloud tops. The mark left by the first impact is already starting to be spread around. There are also hints of seismic waves — ripples that many have travelled all the way to a dense layer of liquid hydrogen thousands of kilometres down and then bounced back up to the surface, creating rings half the size of the planet's visible face. These waves may offer clues to Jupiter's internal structure.

The spots that were made by the collision will undoubtedly blow away eventually, but it's much too soon to tell if there will be any permanent changes in Jupiter. There is still every chance that the impacts, especially from the four fragments that hit in nearly the same place, will destabilise the atmosphere and create a new permanent cyclone like Jupiter's Great Red Spot.

It is also possible that the show isn't quite over. Theorists using a computer model argue that debris has lagged behind the original 21 major fragments. These stragglers, they predict, will keep hitting Jupiter for months to come. Unlike the previous fragments, the latecomer will smash into the near side of the planet, giving astronomers a chance to watch some strikes directly. Is the theory plausible? Says one astronomer, 'We've had so many surprises from S-L-9 already that I wouldn't rule anything out'. (694 words)

Questions 29-35
Do the following statements summarise the opinion of the writer? Write your answer in the space below the statement. Write:
YES if the statement agrees with the writer's view;

NO if the statement does not agree with the writer's view;

NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage.

29. Evidence so far indicates that further study of Shoemaker-Levy 9 will be worthwhile.

Answer:.................................................
30. There are no physical differences between asteroids and comets.

Answer:..................................................

31. The observation of Shoemaker-Levy 9 was an immensely expensive undertaking.

Answer:...................................................

32. David Levy, being an amateur astronomer, was not taken seriously.

Answer:...................................................
33. The dark points of impact indicate there is water on Jupiter.

Answer:...................................................
34. It is now possible to perform detailed studies of Jupiter's internal structure.

Answer:...................................................
35. It is possible that more impacts have occurred since this article was written.
Answer:...................................................

Questions 36-40

Complete the sentences below with words taken from the reading passage. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer.

36. The comet was observed using the ................

37. A comet's tail is usually made up of substances that evaporate quickly such as.................
38. Researchers had expected to see evidence of ................... at the impact site, showing the comet's composition.

39. The presence of sulphur compounds may account for the ...............of Jupiter's clouds.
40. The destabilised atmosphere may lead to the formation of another permanent ................on Jupiter.

Air Rage

(A) The first recorded case of an airline passenger turning seriously violent during a flight, a phenomenon now widely known as “air rage”, happened in 1947 on a flight from Havana to Miami. A drunk man assaulted another passenger and bit a flight attendant. However, the man escaped punishment because it was not then clear under whose legal control a crime committed on plane was, the country where the plane was registered or the country where the crime was committed. In 1963, at the Tokyo convention, it was decided that the laws of the country where the plane is registered take precedence.

(B) The frequency of air rage has expanded out of proportion to the growth of air travel. Until recently few statistics were gathered about air rage, but those that have been indicate that passengers are increasingly likely to cause trouble or engage in violent acts. For example, in 1998 there were 266 air rage incidents out of approximately four million passengers, a 400% increase from 1995. In the same period American Airlines showed a 200% rise. Air travel is predicted to rise by 5% internationally by 2010 leading to increased airport congestion. This, coupled with the flying public’s increased aggression, means that air rage may become a major issue in coming years.

(C) Aside from discomfort and disruption, air rage poses some very real dangers to flying. The most extreme of these is when out of control passengers enter the cockpit. This has actually happened on a number of occasions, the worst of which have resulted in the death and injury of pilots or the intruder taking control of the plane, almost resulting in crashes. In addition, berserk passengers sometimes attempt to open the emergency doors while in flight, putting the whole aircraft in danger. These are extreme examples and cases of air rage more commonly result in physical assaults on fellow passengers and crew such as throwing objects, punching, stabbing or scalding with hot coffee.

(D) The causes of air rage are not known for certain, but it is generally thought that factors include: passenger behavior and personality, the physical environment and changes in society. A recent study has identified the issues that start the incidents to be as follows.

(E) One of the major causes seems to be the passenger’s behavior or their personality. Fear of flying and the feeling of powerlessness associated with flying can lead to irritable or aggressive passengers. Also, alcohol consumed on a plane pressurized to 8000ft affects the drinker more quickly and the effects are stronger. Many people do not take account of this and drinking may increase any negative reaction to the flying environment they have, which, combined with the lowering of their inhibitions, may cause air rage. Smoking withdrawal, which some liken in severity to opiate withdrawal, is another major cause of air rage incidents. Passengers caught smoking in the toilets occasionally assault flight attendants and have been known to start fires. When conflicts occur in these conditions, they can escalate into major incidents if the passenger has a violent personality or a fear of flying and because of the enclosed nature of a plane offers no option of retreat as would be natural in a “fight or flight” reaction.

(F) Some people feel that the physical environment of a plane can lead to air rage. Seats on most airlines have become smaller in recent years as airlines try to increase profits. This leads to uncomfortable and irritated passengers. Also, space for carry on luggage is often very small. Because up to 8% of checked in luggage is lost, misdirected or stolen, passengers have been trying to fit larger carry on items into these small storage areas and this can lead to disputes that can escalate into air rage. Airlines could also be to blame by raising passengers’ expectations too high with their marketing and advertising. Many air rage incidents start when disappointed passengers demand to be reseated. Finally, there is some evidence to show that low oxygen levels can raise aggression level and make people feel more desperate. Airlines have lowered oxygen levels to save money. Now the level of oxygen in the air that the pilots breathe is ten times higher than in cabin class.

(G) Another reason that has been suggested is that society is getting ruder and less patient. The increased congestion at airports, longer queues and increased delays have only added to this. In addition, some air rage incidents have been linked to the demanding nature of high achieving business people, who do not like people telling them what to do and resent the power that the cabin staff have over them. For them, a flight attendant is a waiter or waitress who should do what the passenger wants.

(H) The strongest calls for action to control air rage have come from pilots and aircrew. The International Transport Workers’ Federation argues that there are too many loopholes that let people escape punishment and that the penalties are too light. They want to notify all passengers of the penalties for air rage before taking off, rather than after the passenger begins to cause serious problems, when it may be too late. The Civil Aviation Organisation has been organizing international cooperation and penalties have increased in recent years. The most severe punishment so far has been a 51 month jail sentence, a fine to pay for the jet fuel used and 200 hours community service for a man who attempted to enter the cockpit and to open the emergency door of a domestic US flight.

(I) Various other measures are being used to control air rage. Air crew are getting training on how to calm passengers and how to predict where incidents might result in air rage and take action to prevent this. Other measures include, strengthening doors to stop people entering the cockpit, training crew in the use of plastic restraints to tie down unruly passengers and having pilots divert their planes if passengers cause problems. Banning passengers who are guilty of air rage from flying has also been tried to a lesser extent

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