The way mental function changes is largely determined by three factors-mental lifestyle, the impact of chronic disease and flexibility of the mind.

Experiments have shown that younger monkeys consistently outperform their older colleagues on memory tests. Formerly, psychologists concluded that memory and other mental functions in humans deteriorate over time because of changes in the brain. Thus mental decline after young adulthood appeared inevitable. The truth, however, is not quite so simple.

Stanley Rapoport at the National Institute of Health in the United States measured the flow of blood in the brains of old and young people as they completed different tasks. Since blood flow reflects neural activity. Rapoport could compare which networks of neurons were the same, the neural networks they used were significantly different. The older subjects used different internal strategies to accomplish comparable results at the same time,'Rapoport says. At the Georgia Institute of Technology, psychologist Timothy Salthouse compared a group of fast and accurate typists of college age with another group in their 60s. Both groups typed 60 words a minute. The older typists, it turned out, achieved their speed with cunning little strategies that made them more efficient than their younger counterparts. They made fewer finger shifts, gaining a fraction of a second here and there. They also read ahead in the test. The neural networks involved in typing appear to have been reshaped to compensate for losses in motor skills or other age changes.

In fact, there's evidence that deterioration in mental functions can actually be reversed. Neuropsychologist Marion Diamond at the University of California has shown that mental activity maks neurons sprout new dendrites* which establish connections with other neurons. The dendrites shrink when the mind is idle. For example, 'when a rat is kept in isolation, the animal's brain shrinks, but if we put that rat with other rats in a large cage and give them an assortment of toys, we can show, after four days, significant differences in its brain.'says Diamond. After a month in the enriched surroundings, the whole cerebral cortex has expanded, as has its blood supply.'But even in the enriched surroundings, rats get bored unless the toys are varied. Animals are just like we are. They need stimulation,'says Diamond. A busy mental lifestyle keeps the human mind fit, says Warner Schaie of Penn State University. ‘People who regularly participate in challenging tasks retain their intellectual abilities better than mental couch potatoes.'

In his studies, Schaie detected a decline in mental function among individuals who underwent lengthy stays in hospital for chronic illness. He postulated it might be due to the mental passivity encouraged by hospital routine.

One of the most profoundly important mental functions is memory. Memory exists in more than one form, what we call knowledge - facts - is what psychologists such as Harry Bahrick of Ohio Wesleyan University call semantic memory. Events, conversations and occurrences in time and space, on the other hand, make up episodic memory. It's true that episodic memory begins to decline when most people are in their 50s, but it's never perfect at any age.

Probing the longevity of knowledge, Bahrick tested 1,000 high school graduates to see how well they remembered the school subject algebra. Some had completed the course a month before, other 50 years earlier. Surprisingly, he found that a person's grasp of algebra did not depend on how long ago he'd taken the course. The determining factor was the duration of instruction. Those who had spent only a few months learning algebra forgot most of it within two or three years while others who had been instructed for longer remembered better. According to Bahrick,'the long-term residue of knowledge remains stable over the decades, independent of the age of the person and the memory.'

Perhaps even more important than the ability to remember is the ability to manage memory- a mental function known as metamemory.'You could say metamemory is a byproduct of going to school,'says psychologist Robert Kail of Purdue University,'The question-and-answer process, especially exam taking, helps children learn and teaches them how their memory functions.This may be one reason why the better educated a person is, the more likely they are to perform well in many aspects of life and in psychological assessments: A group of adult novice chess players were compared with a group of child experts at the game. But when asked to remember the patterns of chess pieces arranged on a board, the children won.' Because they'd played a lot of chess, their knowledge of chess was better organized than that of the adults, and their existing knowledge of chess served as a framework for new memory,'explains Kail. Cognitive style, another factor in maintaining mental function, is what Schaie calls the ability to adapt and roll with life's punches.'He measured mental flexibility with questions and tests requiring people to carry out in an offbeat way an everyday activity they had done millions of times. One example was asking people to copy a paragraph substituting uppercase letters for lowercase ones. These tests seem silly, but flexible-minded people manage to complete them,'says Schaie. The rigid person responds with tension instead and performs poorly. Those who score highly on tests of cognition at an advanced age are those who tested high in mental flexibility at middle age'.

On a more optimistic note, one mental resource that only improves with time is specialized knowledge. Crystallised intelligence about one's occupation apparently does not decline at all until at least age 75. Vocabulary is another such specialized form of knowledge. Research clearly shows that vocabulary develops with time. Retired teachers and journalists consistently score higher on tests of vocabulary and general information than college students.

Questions 1-3
Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.

Write the correct letter in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.

1. What does the writer say about the performance of older typists on the test?

A. They used different motor skills from younger typists.

B. They had been more efficiently trained than younger typists.

C. They used more time-saving techniques than younger typists.

D. They had better concentration skills than younger typists.

2. The experiment with the rats showed that

A. brain structure only changed when the rats were given a familiar toy

B. the rats became anxious after a lengthy period of time alone

C. the rats lived longer then they were part of a social group

D. the rats'brains expanded or shrank depending on the level of mental activity

3. A comparison between adults and children who played chess showed that

A. the children were as capable as the adults of remembering a series of numbers

B. the children had better recall of the layout of pieces

C. the adults stored memories of chess moves in a more logical manner

D. the adults had clearer memories of chess games they had played

Questions 4-9
Complete the summary below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 17-22 on your answer sheet.

Types of memory

Psychologists distinguish between two different types of memory: 4 .................. and 5 ................ memory. A study was conducted into people's knowledge of 6 ................. to determine recall ability. This aspect of memory was found to be a function not of age but rather of length of tuition.

School also helps with a brain function called 7 ................. This is why a more highly educated person is generally more successful and does better in 8 ................... tests.

Some of our mental functions remain unaffected by age or even improve. For example, as we get older, our knowledge of 9 ...................... increases.

Questions 10-13
Look at the following statements and the list of people below.

Match each statement with the correct person, A-E.

Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet.

10. The educational system makes students aware of how their memory works.

11. Although older people may use a different mental approach when completing a task, they can still achieve the same result as younger people.

12. Being open to new ways of doing things can have a positive impact on your mental condition as we get older

13. Both animals and humans need to exist in an environment full of interest.

List of People

A. Stanley Rapoport

B. Marion Diamond

C. Warner Schaie

D. Harry Bahrick

E. Robert Kail

Cách thức chức năng tinh thần (mental function cognitive ability, intellectual capacity, mental processes) thay đổi phần lớn được xác định bởi ba yếu tố - lối sống trí tuệ (mental lifestyle intellectual habits, cognitive routine, brain engagement), tác động của bệnh mãn tính (chronic disease long-term illness, persistent condition, ongoing disorder) và tính linh hoạt của tâm trí (flexibility of the mind mental adaptability, cognitive agility, intellectual flexibility).

Các thí nghiệm đã chỉ ra rằng những con khỉ trẻ tuổi luôn thể hiện tốt hơn so với đồng loại lớn tuổi của chúng trong các bài kiểm tra trí nhớ. Trước đây, các nhà tâm lý học kết luận rằng trí nhớ và các chức năng tinh thần khác (mental functions cognitive functions, intellectual abilities, thought processes) của con người suy giảm (deteriorate decline, weaken, degrade) theo thời gian do những thay đổi trong não bộ. Do đó, sự suy giảm trí tuệ (mental decline cognitive decline, intellectual deterioration, brain aging) sau tuổi trưởng thành dường như là điều không thể tránh khỏi. Tuy nhiên, sự thật không đơn giản như vậy.

Stanley Rapoport tại Viện Y tế Quốc gia Hoa Kỳ đã đo dòng chảy máu (flow of blood circulation, bloodstream, vascular flow) trong não của người già và người trẻ khi họ hoàn thành các nhiệm vụ khác nhau. Vì dòng chảy máu phản ánh hoạt động thần kinh (neural activity brain function, cognitive activity, neuronal processes), Rapoport có thể so sánh mạng lưới thần kinh (neural networks nerve connections, synaptic pathways, brain circuits) nào được sử dụng. Ông phát hiện ra rằng mạng lưới thần kinh được sử dụng có sự khác biệt đáng kể. Các đối tượng lớn tuổi sử dụng những chiến lược nội tại (internal strategies cognitive techniques, mental approaches, intellectual tactics) khác nhau để đạt được kết quả tương đương.

Tại Viện Công nghệ Georgia, nhà tâm lý học Timothy Salthouse đã so sánh một nhóm những người đánh máy (typists keyboard operators, stenographers, data entry clerks) nhanh và chính xác ở độ tuổi đại học với một nhóm khác ở độ tuổi 60. Cả hai nhóm đều đánh máy 60 từ một phút. Hóa ra, những người đánh máy lớn tuổi đạt được tốc độ đó nhờ vào chiến lược xảo quyệt (cunning little strategies clever tactics, ingenious methods, smart techniques) giúp họ làm việc hiệu quả hơn so với những người trẻ tuổi.>> Form đăng kí giải đề thi thật IELTS 4 kĩ năng kèm bài giải bộ đề 100 đề PART 2 IELTS SPEAKING quý đang thi (update hàng tuần) từ IELTS TUTOR

Thực tế, có bằng chứng cho thấy sự suy giảm trí tuệ (deterioration in mental functions cognitive decline, brain degeneration, intellectual weakening) có thể đảo ngược (reversed counteracted, undone, mitigated). Nhà thần kinh tâm lý học Marion Diamond tại Đại học California đã chỉ ra rằng hoạt động trí não (mental activity cognitive engagement, intellectual stimulation, brain exercise) khiến tế bào thần kinh (neurons nerve cells, brain cells, synapses) mọc thêm sợi nhánh (dendrites nerve extensions, neuron branches, synaptic projections), giúp tạo kết nối với các tế bào thần kinh khác. Khi tâm trí không hoạt động, các sợi nhánh sẽ co lại.

Trong các nghiên cứu của mình, Warner Schaie phát hiện rằng những người có thời gian dài nằm viện do bệnh mãn tính có sự suy giảm trí tuệ (decline in mental function cognitive deterioration, intellectual weakening, brain decline). Ông cho rằng nguyên nhân có thể là do tính thụ động tinh thần (mental passivity lack of engagement, cognitive stagnation, intellectual inactivity) mà môi trường bệnh viện gây ra.

Một trong những chức năng tinh thần (mental functions cognitive skills, intellectual abilities, brain capacities) quan trọng nhất là trí nhớ (memory recollection, retention, remembrance). Trí nhớ tồn tại dưới nhiều dạng khác nhau. Những gì chúng ta gọi là kiến thức (knowledge information, learning, understanding) – các sự kiện – là trí nhớ ngữ nghĩa (semantic memory factual recall, conceptual knowledge, declarative memory). Trong khi đó, các sự kiện, cuộc trò chuyện và những điều diễn ra trong không gian và thời gian tạo thành trí nhớ tình tiết (episodic memory event memory, autobiographical recall, situational recollection).

Trong một nghiên cứu, Harry Bahrick đã kiểm tra 1.000 học sinh tốt nghiệp trung học để xem họ nhớ môn đại số (algebra mathematical equations, algebraic expressions, symbolic reasoning) như thế nào. Điều đáng ngạc nhiên là khả năng ghi nhớ môn này không phụ thuộc vào thời gian kể từ khi họ học mà vào thời gian giảng dạy (duration of instruction length of education, period of study, time spent learning).

Thậm chí quan trọng hơn cả trí nhớ là khả năng quản lý trí nhớ (manage memory memory control, cognitive regulation, recall management) – một chức năng tinh thần (mental function cognitive ability, brain process, intellectual skill) được gọi là siêu trí nhớ (metamemory memory awareness, cognitive monitoring, knowledge of memory). Nhà tâm lý học Robert Kail cho rằng, quá trình hỏi và trả lời (question-and-answer process interactive dialogue, examination method, testing approach), đặc biệt là trong các kỳ thi, giúp trẻ em học hỏi và hiểu4 được cách trí nhớ của chúng hoạt động.

Phong cách nhận thức (cognitive style thinking pattern, intellectual approach, mental framework) là một yếu tố khác giúp duy trì chức năng trí tuệ (mental function cognitive process, intellectual performance, brain ability). Warner Schaie đo tính linh hoạt trí tuệ (mental flexibility cognitive adaptability, intellectual agility, thinking versatility) thông qua các câu hỏi và bài kiểm tra yêu cầu thực hiện các hoạt động theo cách khác thường (offbeat unconventional, unusual, atypical). Những người có tư duy linh hoạt hoàn thành bài kiểm tra dễ dàng, trong khi những người cứng nhắc (rigid inflexible, strict, unyielding) phản ứng với căng thẳng (tension stress, anxiety, strain) và có kết quả kém hơn.

Trên một khía cạnh tích cực hơn, một nguồn lực tinh thần chỉ cải thiện theo thời gian (improves with time develops over time, enhances progressively, strengthens gradually) là kiến thức chuyên môn (specialized knowledge expertise, subject proficiency, domain-specific information). Trí tuệ kết tinh (crystallized intelligence accumulated knowledge, wisdom, lifelong learning) về nghề nghiệp của một người dường như không suy giảm cho đến ít nhất là 75 tuổi. Vốn từ vựng (vocabulary word knowledge, lexicon, linguistic repertoire) cũng là một dạng kiến thức chuyên môn. Nghiên cứu cho thấy rằng vốn từ vựng phát triển theo thời gian (develops with time expands over years, increases gradually, enriches continuously).